what led to the start of the persian wars?

what led to the start of the persian wars?

[90] Under the guidance of Miltiades, the general with the greatest experience of fighting the Persians, the Athenian army marched to block the two exits from the plain of Marathon. Then one of greek king Odysseus builds a horse, the famous Trojan Horse. [12], The military history of Greece between the end of the second Persian invasion of Greece and the Peloponnesian War (479–431 BC) is not well supported by surviving ancient sources. What is the molecular geometry of ClF4 -? [47] The troops were usually armed with a bow, a 'short spear' and a sword or axe, and carried a wicker shield. Darius died while preparing to march on Egypt, and the throne of Persia passed to his son Xerxes I. Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece. [183][184][185] The Ionians and others asked the Athenians to take leadership of the campaign, to which they agreed. Among modern scholars, some have accepted this number, although suggesting the number must have been lower by the Battle of Salamis. [44][62] In 499 BC the then tyrant of Miletus, Aristagoras, launched a joint expedition with the Persian satrap Artaphernes to conquer Naxos, in an attempt to bolster his position in Miletus (both financially and in terms of prestige). It is not clear what this was, but it probably involved sailing into gaps between enemy ships and then ramming them in the side. There is a possibility that the Achaemenid ruler now saw the Athenians as subjects who had solemnly promised submission through the gift of "Earth and Water", and that subsequent actions by the Athenians, such as their intervention in the Ionian revolt, were perceived as a break of oath, and a rebellion to the central authority of the Achaemenid ruler. [93] They arrived in time to prevent Artaphernes from securing a landing in Athens. Athens, and other Greek cities, sent aid, but were quickly forced to back down after defeat in 494 BCE. The first battles of this war brew up in 92 BCE when the Roman Republic battled with the Parthians. [5] In 490 BC a second force was sent to Greece, this time across the Aegean Sea, under the command of Datis and Artaphernes. [72] Miletus was then besieged, captured, and its population was enslaved. Battle of Salamis, (480 bc), battle in the Greco-Persian Wars in which a Greek fleet defeated much larger Persian naval forces in the straits at Salamis, between the island of … [185] The Spartans, hearing of his behaviour, recalled Pausanias and tried him on charges of collaborating with the enemy. [8][9] Nevertheless, Thucydides chose to begin his history where Herodotus left off (at the Siege of Sestos) and felt Herodotus's history was accurate enough not to need re-writing or correcting. Athens led the city-states of Asia Minor and the Aegean islands in the Delian League. Interesting Facts about the Persian Wars. Victory over the allied Greek states at the famous Battle of Thermopylae allowed the Persians to torch an evacuated Athens and overrun most of Greece. ^ iii: Although historically inaccurate, the legend of a Greek messenger running to Athens with news of the victory and then promptly expiring, became the inspiration for this athletics event, introduced at the 1896 Athens Olympics, and originally run between Marathon and Athens. [152] Seizing the opportunity, the Allied fleet attacked, and scored a decisive victory, sinking or capturing at least 200 Persian ships, therefore ensuring the safety of the Peloponnessus. [130] Little is known about the internal workings of the congress or the discussions during its meetings. [215] Shortly afterwards, they received the news that Xerxes had crossed the Hellespont. [216], "Persian Wars" redirects here. Darius had died in 485 B.C. [105] Early in spring, it moved to Abydos where it was joined with the armies of the western satrapies. [10] A negative view of Herodotus was passed on to Renaissance Europe, though he remained well read. [39] By crossing the Halys, Croesus had indeed destroyed a great empire – his own. In his digression on the pentekontaetia, his aim is to explain the growth of Athenian power, and such a treaty, and the fact that the Delian allies were not released from their obligations after it, would have marked a major step in the Athenian ascendancy. The Spartans were supposedly of the view that, with the liberation of mainland Greece and the Greek cities of Asia Minor, the war's purpose had already been reached. [104] The Persian army was gathered in Asia Minor in the summer and autumn of 481 BC. What caused the Greek city- states to band together? [11] The prevailing modern view is that Herodotus did a remarkable job in his Historia, but that some of his specific details (particularly troop numbers and dates) should be viewed with skepticism. [112][113][114] Other recent works on the Persian Wars reject this number, viewing 1,207 as more of a reference to the combined Greek fleet in the Iliad. Greek armies placed the emphasis on heavier infantry, while Persian armies favoured lighter troop types. This period, sometimes referred to as the pentekontaetia (πεντηκονταετία, the Fifty Years) by ancient writers, was a period of relative peace and prosperity within Greece. Persia, under the rule of Darius (r. 522-486 BCE), was already expanding into mainland Europe and had subjugated Ionia, Thrace, and Macedonia by the beginning of the 5th century BCE. [190] At the Battle of the Eurymedon in Pamphylia, the Athenians and allied fleet achieved a stunning double victory, destroying a Persian fleet and then landing the ships' marines to attack and rout the Persian army. [147] If Xerxes could destroy the Allied navy, he would be in a strong position to force an Allied surrender;[148] conversely by avoiding destruction, or as Themistocles hoped, by destroying the Persian fleet, the Allies could prevent conquest from being completed. The High Classical Period is framed by the end of the Persian Wars (the Greek Wars with the Persians) and the beginning of the Peloponnesian War (Greek Civil War, essentially Athens vs. Sparta and allies). [44] In the past, Greek states had often been ruled by tyrants, but that form of government was on the decline. A huge fine was imposed on Miltiades for the crime of 'deceiving the Athenian people', but he died weeks later from his wound. The customary elite young men in the Hippeis were replaced by veterans who already had children. [142] Here the Allied fleet held off the Persians for three days; however, on the third evening the Allies received news of the fate of Leonidas and the Allied troops at Thermopylae. [99], The Persians had the sympathy of several Greek city-states, including Argos, which had pledged to defect when the Persians reached their borders. [111], The size of the Persian fleet is also disputed, although perhaps less so. [47] The first rank of Persian infantry formations, the so-called 'sparabara', had no bows, carried larger wicker shields and were sometimes armed with longer spears. [157] Athens was thus evacuated again, and the Persians marched south and re-took possession of it. What factors influenced the outcome of the Persian wars? [183] There is no indication that the Allies attempted to take possession of the island, and, shortly after, they sailed to Byzantium. Mardonius now repeated his offer of peace to the Athenian refugees on Salamis. [119] Fine suggests that many Athenians must have admitted that such a fleet would be needed to resist the Persians, whose preparations for the coming campaign were known. Main Events. During this period, Themistocles continued to support the expansion of Athens' naval power. [7] Herodotus's approach was novel and, at least in Western society, he invented 'history' as a discipline. Themistocles chapter 25 has a direct reference to Thucydides, The Achaemenid Empire in South Asia and Recent Excavations in Akra in Northwest Pakistan Peter Magee, Cameron Petrie, Robert Knox, Farid Khan, Ken Thomas, Second Persian invasion of Greece § Size of the Persian forces, List of wars extended by diplomatic irregularity, http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/persianwars/p/PersianWars101.htm, Encyclopædia Britannica: Greco-Persian Wars, Persian Fire: The First World Empire and the Battle for the West, Persian Wars – Ancient History Encyclopedia, The Persian Wars at History of Iran on Iran Chamber Society, Article in Greek about Salamis, includes Marathon and Xerxes's campaign, EDSITEment Lesson 300 Spartans at the Battle of Thermopylae: Herodotus' Real History, 2,500 year celebration of the Persian Empire, Medo-Babylonian conquest of the Assyrian Empire, https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Greco-Persian_Wars&oldid=995538969, Wars involving Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Articles with specifically marked weasel-worded phrases from June 2011, Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License, All Greek cities of Asia were to 'live by their own laws', Persian satraps (and presumably their armies) were not to travel west of the. [7] As historian Tom Holland has it, "For the first time, a chronicler set himself to trace the origins of a conflict not to a past so remote so as to be utterly fabulous, nor to the whims and wishes of some god, nor to a people's claim to manifest destiny, but rather explanations he could verify personally. [96] Xerxes crushed the Egyptian revolt, and very quickly resumed the preparations for the invasion of Greece. [203] On the other hand, if there was indeed some kind of accommodation, Thucydides's failure to mention it is odd. The collision between the fractious political world of the Greeks and the enormous empire of the Persians began when Cyrus the Great conquered the Greek-inhabited region of Ionia in 547 BC. ** The image above shows a Greek hoplite and Persian warrior fighting each other. Asked By: Jennifer Gsellmann | Last Updated: 29th January, 2020, The Greeks lost the Battle of Thermopylae, due to a Greek traitor. The Persians most likely used their bows to wear down the enemy, then closed in to deliver the final blow with spears and swords. The wars took place in the early 5th century B.C. [32][33], The cities of Ionia remained independent until they were conquered by the Lydians of western Asia Minor. [186], In the meantime, the Spartans had sent Dorkis to Byzantium with a small force, to take command of the Allied force. These were both feats of exceptional ambition that would have been beyond the capabilities of any other contemporary state. The Persians followed a monotheistic religion called. In 498 BC, supported by troops from Athens and Eretria, the Ionians marched on, captured, and burnt Sardis. Athens came to the Ionians aid. Their role was to protect the back ranks of the formation. In what Holland characterises as, in essence, the world's first referendum, Aristides was ostracised, and Themistocles's policies were endorsed. The movie 300 is about the Spartans who fought at Thermopylae. In 478 BC, still operating under the terms of the Hellenic alliance, the Allies sent out a fleet composed of 20 Peloponnesian and 30 Athenian ships supported by an unspecified number of allies, under the overall command of Pausanias. Backed by Persian military might, these tyrants did not need the support of the population, and could thus rule absolutely. [151] There, the Persian numbers became a hindrance, as ships struggled to maneuver and became disorganised. The style of warfare between the Greek city-states, which dates back until at least 650 BC (as dated by the 'Chigi vase'), was based around the hoplite phalanx supported by missile troops. Which statement best describes the outcome of the Persian wars? [60], The Ionian Revolt and associated revolts in Aeolis, Doris, Cyprus, and Caria were military rebellions by several regions of Asia Minor against Persian rule, lasting from 499 to 493 BC. [156] Mardonius remained in Thessaly, knowing an attack on the Isthmus was pointless, while the Allies refused to send an army outside the Peloponessus. Start studying History - Greco-Persian Wars. [126], In 481 BC, Xerxes sent ambassadors to city states throughout Greece, asking for food, land, and water as tokens of their submission to Persia. 499 BCE - 493 BCE. Opinion amongst modern historians is also split; for instance, Fine accepts the concept of the Peace of Callias,[21] whereas Sealey effectively rejects it. [209], Repeatedly defeated in battle by the Greeks, and plagued by internal rebellions that hindered their ability to fight the Greeks, after 449 BC, Artaxerxes I and his successors instead adopted a policy of divide-and-rule. [159], When Mardonius heard the Allied army was on the march, he retreated into Boeotia, near Plataea, trying to draw the Allies into open terrain where he could use his cavalry. [74] The Persians spent 493 BC reducing the cities along the west coast that still held out against them,[75] before finally imposing a peace settlement on Ionia that was considered[by whom?] [170], Mycale was, in many ways, the beginning of a new phase in the conflict, in which the Greeks would go on the offensive against the Persians. The Delian League continued to campaign against Persia for the next three decades, beginning with the expulsion of the remaining Persian garrisons from Europe. The remnants of the Persian army fled to their ships and left the battle. While fighting the Lydians, Cyrus had sent messages to the Ionians asking them to revolt against Lydian rule, which the Ionians had refused to do. [83] With Athens still defiant, and Sparta now also effectively at war with him, Darius ordered a further military campaign for the following year. [182] Control of both Sestos and Byzantium gave the allies command of the straits between Europe and Asia (over which the Persians had crossed), and allowed them access to the merchant trade of the Black Sea. Most modern scholars reject as unrealistic the figures of 2.5 million given by Herodotus and other ancient sources because the victors likely miscalculated or exaggerated. Since this was to be a full-scale invasion, it needed longter… [202] Fine argues that Callisthenes's denial that a treaty was made after the Eurymedon does not preclude a peace being made at another point. [88] The Eretrians made no attempt to stop the Persians from landing or advancing and thus allowed themselves to be besieged. The actions of the general Pausanias at the siege of Byzantium alienated many of the Greek states from the Spartans, and the anti-Persian alliance was therefore reconstituted around Athenian leadership, called the Delian League. [143], Victory at Thermopylae meant that all Boeotia fell to Xerxes; Attica was then open to invasion. [22], Further scattered details can be found in Pausanias's Description of Greece, while the Byzantine Suda dictionary of the 10th century AD preserves some anecdotes found nowhere else. answer choices . [73] This double defeat effectively ended the revolt, and the Carians surrendered to the Persians as a result. The route to southern Greece (Boeotia, Attica and the Peloponnesus) would require the army of Xerxes to travel through the narrow pass of Thermopylae. [25], The Greeks of the classical period believed that, in the dark age that followed the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization, significant numbers of Greeks fled and had emigrated to Asia Minor and settled there. 513 BCE. [55] Use of cavalry in Greek armies is not reported in the battles of the Greco-Persian Wars. leaders and support. [140] The Allies withstood two full days of Persian attacks, including those by the elite Persian Immortals. [166][167], Herodotus recounts that, on the afternoon of the Battle of Plataea, a rumour of their victory at that battle reached the Allies' navy, at that time off the coast of Mount Mycale in Ionia. [182] Certainly, the fact that the Delian League repeatedly campaigned in Cyprus suggests either that the island was not garrisoned by the Allies in 478 BC, or that the garrisons were quickly expelled. Because of this the Greek fleet had to retreat to the island of Salamis, along with the population of Athens and the remaining army. 18.During the 2nd Persian War a Spartan force of 300 held off the Persian army for 2 days at a place called Thermopylae 19.The Spartan leader who led the Greek army at Thermopylae was [127] States that were opposed to Persia thus began to coalesce around these two city states. "[7], Some later ancient historians, starting with Thucydides, criticized Herodotus and his methods. [114][115][116], A year after Marathon, Miltiades, the hero of Marathon, was injured in a military campaign to Paros. [187] With the Spartan withdrawal after Byzantium, the leadership of the Athenians became explicit. Much of Diodorus's writing about this period is drawn from the much earlier Greek historian Ephorus, who also wrote a universal history. Being informed by the envoys, he gave them an answer whereof the substance was, that if the Athenians gave king Darius earth and water, then he would make alliance with them; but if not, his command was that they should begone. [161] Seeing that the Persians might never have a better opportunity to attack, Mardonius ordered his whole army forward. and last until 479 B.C. [18][19] Nevertheless, Thucydides's account can be, and is, used by historians to draw up a skeleton chronology for the period, on to which details from archaeological records and other writers can be superimposed. The Persian Gulf War, also known as the First Iraq War, occurred from August 2, 1990, to February 28, 1991. At the beginning of the ancient Roman Empire, the conflicts were of only of territorial nature. [185], Pausanias returned to Byzantium as a private citizen in 477 BC, and took command of the city until he was expelled by the Athenians. Tags: Question 3 . It is remembered because the underdog won, at least initially. Ex-President George H. W. Bush made the call to send troops to Saudi Arabia in preparation for the attacks. So we will begin with an overview of the history of the Persian Wars. [102][103], In 481 BC, after roughly four years of preparation, Xerxes began to muster the troops to invade Europe. [128] This confederation had powers both to send envoys to ask for assistance and to dispatch troops from the member states to defensive points after joint consultation. [174] The siege dragged on for several months, causing some discontent amongst the Athenian troops,[177] but eventually, when the food ran out in the city, the Persians fled at night from the least guarded area of the city. [47][48], The Persian military consisted of a diverse group of men drawn across the various nations of the empire. This maneuver went awry, leaving the Athenians, and Spartans and Tegeans isolated on separate hills, with the other contingents scattered further away near Plataea. After Iraq had refused to remove troops from Kuwait, the allied troops began bombing on January 17. [98] However, the campaign was delayed by one year because of another revolt in Egypt and Babylonia. [121] It is unclear from the ancient sources whether 100 or 200 ships were initially authorised; both Fine and Holland suggest that at first 100 ships were authorised and that a second vote increased this number to the levels seen during the second invasion. but the Persians lost. [137] The Allies proceeded to occupy the pass, rebuilt the wall the Phocians had built at the narrowest point of the pass, and waited for Xerxes's arrival. An Iraqi troop buildup near Kuwait in 1994 led the United States to send forces to Kuwait and nearby areas. Just why Greece was coveted by Persia is unclear. The Ionians thus prepared to defend themselves, and Cyrus sent the Median general Harpagus to conquer them. Click to see full answer Correspondingly, what was the main cause of the Persian wars? [60][61] Herodotus reports that Artaphernes had no previous knowledge of the Athenians, and his initial reaction was "Who are these people?". Towards the end of that conflict, in 387 BC, Sparta sought the aid of Persia to shore up her position. Towards the end of the conflict with Persia, the process by which the Delian League became the Athenian Empire reached its conclusion. [85] The fleet sailed next to Naxos, to punish the Naxians for their resistance to the failed expedition the Persians had mounted there a decade earlier. [187] In the aftermath of Mycale, the Spartan king Leotychides had proposed transplanting all the Greeks from Asia Minor to Europe as the only method of permanently freeing them from Persian dominion. What was the most direct cause of the Peloponnesian wars? [107], The numbers of troops that Xerxes mustered for the second invasion of Greece have been the subject of endless dispute. Key Points. The Oracle supposedly replied the famously ambiguous answer that "if Croesus was to cross the Halys he would destroy a great empire". This led to the Persian War, one of the most famous conflicts in ancient history. [ii] They thus formed a 'cultural league', to which they would admit no other cities, or even other tribal Ionians. The following year, the confederated Greeks went on the offensive, decisively defeating the Persian army at the Battle of Plataea, and ending the invasion of Greece by the Achaemenid Empire. During the rebellion, one of the Persian capital cities, Sardis, was burned. [179] Artayctes was crucified at the request of the people of Elaeus, a town which Artayctes had plundered while governor of the Chersonesos. Although the Greek task force achieved initial successes, they were unable to capture the Persian garrison in Memphis, despite a three-year long siege. The Athenians made sure that a Spartan delegation was on hand to hear the Athenians reject the Persians' offer. [65] However, on their return journey to Ionia, they were followed by Persian troops, and decisively beaten at the Battle of Ephesus. [84] The Persian force sailed first to the island of Rhodes, where a Lindian Temple Chronicle records that Datis besieged the city of Lindos, but was unsuccessful. Minor sources for the period include the works of Pompeius Trogus (epitomized by Justinus), Cornelius Nepos and Ctesias of Cnidus (epitomized by Photius), which are not in their original textual form. However, Xerxes' ambassadors deliberately avoided Athens and Sparta, hoping thereby that those states would not learn of the Persians' plans. [68] While at first campaigning successfully in Caria, this army was wiped out in an ambush at the Battle of Pedasus. This expedition subjugated the Cyclades, before besieging, capturing and razing Eretria. It is remembered in part because it pitted an underdog, Greece, against a massive empire, Persia. He wrote his 'Enquiries' (Greek Historia, English (The) Histories) around 440–430 BC, trying to trace the origins of the Greco-Persian Wars, which would still have been recent history. [209] There was no open conflict between the Greeks and Persia until 396 BC, when the Spartan king Agesilaus briefly invaded Asia Minor; as Plutarch points out, the Greeks were far too busy overseeing the destruction of their own power to fight against the "barbarians". After the failure of the first invasion, Darius began raising a huge new army with which he intended to subjugate Greece completely. [188], Throughout the 470s BC, the Delian League campaigned in Thrace and the Aegean to remove the remaining Persian garrisons from the region, primarily under the command of the Athenian politician Cimon. [192] The Persians then counterattacked, and the Athenian force was itself besieged for 18 months, before being wiped out. The allied Greeks followed up their success by destroying the rest of the Persian fleet at the Battle of Mycale, before expelling Persian garrisons from Sestos (479 BC) and Byzantium (478 BC). [145] Athens thus fell to the Persians; the small number of Athenians who had barricaded themselves on the Acropolis were eventually defeated, and Xerxes then ordered the destruction of Athens. Under the so-called "King's Peace" that brought the war to an end, Artaxerxes II demanded and received the return of the cities of Asia Minor from the Spartans, in return for which the Persians threatened to make war on any Greek state that did not make peace. A congress of states met at Corinth in late autumn of 481 BC, and a confederate alliance of Greek city-states was formed. Continued resistance to weapons inspections led to bombing raids against Iraq, and trade sanctions imposed on Iraq remained in place, albeit with an emphasis on military-related goods until the second Gulf conflict. [48] Lightly armed skirmishers, the psiloi also comprised a part of Greek armies growing in importance during the conflict; at the Battle of Plataea, for instance, they may have formed over half the Greek army. [193] This disaster, coupled with ongoing warfare in Greece, dissuaded the Athenians from resuming conflict with Persia. The Ionian Greek cities, once subject states to the Persian king, gained their independence. The Persians threatened to attack Athens if they did not accept Hippias. After Byzantium, the Spartans were allegedly eager to end their involvement in the war. [150] Partly because of deception by Themistocles, the navies met in the cramped Straits of Salamis. Made aware by scouts that they were being outflanked, Leonidas dismissed most of the Allied army, remaining to guard the rear with perhaps 2,000 men. Home, but the interests of all the remaining townspeople then began to plan to completely Greece. 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That 6,400 Persian bodies were counted on the defensive Harpagus to conquer.. [ 40 ] Cyrus refused, citing the Ionians difficult to rule each of them historians who believe Herodotus up. Fled to their ships and left the battle of Marathon Themistocles to the treaty 's existence the that.

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